General Taxes Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

General Taxes - Coursework Example The holiday excludes all taxpayers regardless of their wealth. The budget of these households (the wealthiest) is more flexible and they can effortlessly time their purchases in order to take advantage of the limited-time offering (Sirot, 2011). North Carolina state administration has failed to collect enough revenues to support its collective commitment to educating the children, protecting the neighborhoods and supporting the elders. The big challenge is that the revenue collected by the state is from those who have the least capability to pay (Sirot, 2011). The sales tax produces nearly a third of the North Carolina’s revenues. However, the sales tax holiday leads in a loss of close to $12 million per year; this is the money that can fund early childhood education or enhance the educational attainment level of North Carolina young workforce. The sales tax holiday undermines the capability of the revenue system to offer support to the shared investments (Sirot,

Community Needs Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Community Needs Assessment - Essay Example This literature review explores the meaning of community needs assessment and the different types of needs. It also highlights the data that is sought in CNA and the reasons behind seeking such information. The methods of data collection have been discussed, as well as the principles that underpin the steps involved in the process undertaking a CNA. Community needs assessment is an important strategy that aims at collecting data regarding a community’s requirements, views, and challenges as well as resources that can be applied to establish the actual needs of the community (Stevens et al. 2006). It is a way of identifying the strengths and assets available in the community that can facilitate satisfaction of the needs of all members of the society, whether young or old; working or jobless; able or disabled and any other aspects of diversity in the society. Acosta and Toro (2000) observe that community needs assessment concentrates on the community’s potential all citizens included, groups as well as organizations. It forms the basis for establishing and classifying services and justification as well as establishing a society that upholds and nurtures children and families. Stakeholders in the community such as NGOs, volunteers and any other parties affected by community affairs are involved in the process of comm unity needs assessment. The process enables planners to determine the manner in which a community is currently accomplishing its needs as well as its potential to provide capital and services in future (Alpi, 2005). There are various needs that the community needs assessment tries to establish. These include; the ability to meet the required standards of living. The employment rates within a particular community are an indicator of the people’s capacity to pay the cost of necessities in their day to day lives. Poverty is mainly a consequence of unemployment in the community. Employment is among the community needs

Organizational culture Essay Example for Free

Organizational culture Essay For a company, organizational culture is very important because the culture is like something that the employee can be based for. In addition, the organizational culture is defined as a system of shared meaning and beliefs within an organization that determines, in a large degree, how employees act (Robbins, et al., 2003, p. 70). Founders of new organizations and managers play an important role in creating and maintaining organizational cultures. However, ethical organizational cultures are those in which ethical values and norms are emphasized. As Jones and George (2003, p. 350) argue that ethical organizational cultures can help organizations and their members behave in a socially responsible manner. Some might believe that if they do the ethical corporate culture, they will be able to get much profit. Meanwhile, Arnold and Lampe (1999, pp. 1-19, cited in Robbins, et al., p. 154) claim that the content and strength of an organizations culture also influences ethical behavior. Nevertheless, a strong culture will have a very powerful and positive influence on managers decisions to act ethically and unethically. whereas, in a weak organizational culture, managers are more likely to rely on subculture norms as a behavioral guide. Work groups and departmental standards will strongly influence ethical behaviour in organizations with weak overall cultures. Alongside with organizational culture, there are two more things that have strong correlation with it. The first one is ethics. Ethics is the code of moral principles and values that govern that behavior of a person or group with respect to what is right or wrong (Robbins, et al., 2003, p. 150). The second thing that has strong correlation with culture is social responsibility. It is a managements obligation to make choices and take action that will contribute to the welfare and interest of society as well as to the interest of the organization (Robbins, et al., 2003, p. 138). Nevertheless, managers who have ethical behavior and social responsibility can build a good reputation for their company. As Donaldson and Werhane (1993, pp.249-254) argue that having a good reputation of a company can increase profit. In addition, Robbins (et al., 2003, pp. 161-165) defines social responsibility is an obligation, beyond that required by the law and  economics, for a firm to pursue long-term goals that are good for society. However, social responsibility is the duty of manager to make decision consider with well-being of stakeholders and society. In fact, there are two main views of managements social responsibility, which are classical view and socioeconomic view (Robbins, 2003, p. 407). Additionally, classical view aims to maximize profits, whereas socioeconomic view is that social responsibility goes beyond the increasing profit to improve the welfare of society. It is very important that managers support and develop an ethical culture because employees more likely to act ethically if their leader work having an ethical role model (Jones, George, 2003, pp.101-103). Working ethically is a responsibility to the society. Nevertheless, this is very important as it can avoid harming stakeholders and also enhance the well-being of society as a whole. Stakeholders including employees, customers, suppliers, competitors, governments, media, union, communities, social and political action groups, etc (Robbins, et al., 2003, pp. 92-93). There are still some examples for the reference of socially responsible behavior such as providing training for workers, eliminating discrimination and reducing pollution (Robbins, et al., 2003, p. 407). Providing training for workers can enhance their skills and techniques for work and it can improve the productivity and efficiency. Workers will not be obsolete by the changes of technology so it benefits employees as well as the company (Tsang, 2003, p. 25). Social responsibility and economic growth is related sometimes. At first, the profit may be reduced by the costs of training workers, however, when the trained employees can work efficiently, the productivity will be increased followed by increasing profit at last. Eliminating discrimination is a social responsibility of managers. Some companies would like to employ a specific kind of person but not the others and cause inequality is known as discrimination. For instance, some companies would prefer employ a local student to an international student or they prefer employ man to woman (Pagan, 2000, p. 619). It is harm to firm if they refuse to employ some other races people since they can provide some  new ideas to the company for reference. These new ideas may not be gained from local employers as foreigners have different culture from the local and they can offer some useful information from the other view for the decision making. This is why an organizational culture which has formally adopted a specific position, philosophy, or set of beliefs regarding the fundamental values or principles, is an important thing to be used as the basis for business decision making. Moreover, if managers keep labor Market discrimination, it would lead to society chaotic and harm the society. Therefore, managers should bear the social responsibility to reduce discrimination. Another point that supports an organization to become socially responsible is that when a company being socially responsible, which means that the company has long-term goals. Company should higher the quality of a product to benefit customers to provide a better quality of life (Samli, 1992, p.12). The real example about this is The Body Shop. Although The Body Shop is looking for the profit, they still very concern about the environment. They use goods that not give bad impact on the environment. The product that the body shop sells is more expensive than others because they use the materials that do not give bad impact to the environment. As a result, people still buy their product because people know that they choose the right product. More expensive but in their product, it cant be found anything that can damage their self and more important damage the environment. As we have seen, by being socially responsible, the firm can gain long-run profit and improve the companys public image (Davis, et al., 1988, p. 37). In short, it can be seen that being socially responsible and following ethical corporate culture is much more profitable. But, since not all the companies have ethical corporate culture, there are some policies or practices that can be worked to encourage it. Firstly, the company should provide some training for the new and current employee because with the training activities it will make all the employee know about the culture and can adapt with the organizations culture. Secondly, the company should punish the person who do not obey or perform appropriate with the culture and give respect to the person who perform and do the culture. With that  punishment and respect the employee will think that obey the culture is important. Third, the leaders in the company have to do the culture, so the employee can follow the leader to do the culture. Senior management needs to zealous avoid any decision or action that could reasonably be expected to communicate selfish motive for imposing a n ethics philosophy, system, or measurement on employees (www.centeronline.org/knowledge/article.cfm?ID=2431). In conclusion, social responsibility is an important element for a company to success. Social responsibility brings company reputation followed by higher profit. Those firms having social responsibility can improve peoples quality of life and their health. It can also stable the society from chaotic. Therefore, managers should follow regulations and work ethically with the consideration of societys well-being. Briefly, if one company is concerned about the ethical corporate culture which means that the company and the employee know what is right and wrong and know how to behave in the company. Thus, in one company it is very important to have ethical corporate culture.

Penicillin fermentation and role of strain improvement on efficiency

Penicillin fermentation and role of strain improvement on efficiency Introduction Penicillin is one of the most vital drugs known to the medical world. Its discovery by Alexander Fleming in late 1920s changed the face of the world by bringing hope in peoples lives as penicillin was effectively used against diseases such as syphilis and staphylococcus infections. Penicillins discovery was an unexpected accident carried out while isolating staphylococcus aureus by growing bacteria on petri dishes. It was discovered that on one of the dishes a contaminating mould named penicillium notatum had no bacteria around it. Fleming noticed this behavior and obtained a small amount of the secreted antimicrobial product and named it penicillin. However Fleming was not able to commercialize the product into starting a large scale production process and preserved the cultured organism. As penicillin became more popular among other researchers, fermentation processes were being developed to improve its yield. [3]. Using these fermentation techniques, researchers started to carry o ut the production of penicillin in labs at a smaller scale. This process required a considerable amount of time and effort. One of the first methods used to produce penicillin came not too soon after its discovery. The first production procedure resulted in penicillin being produced by fermentation using surface method. In this method, penicillium mould was grown on top of a quiescent medium and bottle plant techniques were used to yield penicillin. This was a descent breakthrough in producing the antibiotic drug but it took very long growing cycles of penicillium mould. [3]. The demand for antibiotics really went up during and after the Second World War. At this time penicillin was well known around the world, however its production at larger scale with better efficiency was needed to make it a household name. The challenge of producing penicillin at larger scale was very daunting for researchers and engineers. It was at that time when fermentation research on corn steep liquor at a laboratory in Illinois, USA allowed in producing 2.3 million doses through development of deep tank fermentation [5]. As the demand for penicillin was rising, different ways of obtaining the antibiotic drug increased. Such production methods involved the use of fermenters with buffers and separation funnels, the property of liquid-liquid extraction, distribution ratios and finally the use of a membrane in a countercurrent extraction column. Penicillin Production Procedures Since the discovery of penicillin as an antibiotic drug, there have been many different methods developed to produce penicillin efficiently in order to achieve maximum yield. For instance, the recovery of penicillin using an emulsion liquid membrane in countercurrent extraction column is very successful method yield a highly qualitative product. The use of a countercurrent extraction column requires both a dispersed phase and an aqueous phase. The aqueous phase is made of penicillin potassium salt which is dissolved in a citrate buffer solution while the dispersed phase is made of a mixture of internal aqueous solution; sodium carbonate present in de-ionized water and organic solution, a mixture of a secondary amine, and nonionic polyamine in kerosene [1]. In order to process this method, the continuous phase is first fed through the top of the column at unsteady state, and when the flow of this phase reaches steady state, the dispersed phase is injected through the bottom of the col umn, producing a countercurrent extraction with the help of a nozzle. While the process is extracting, time samples are taken from the top and the bottom to monitor the concentration of penicillin. Once the separation of the continuous phase and dispersed phase occurs with the help of a filtration process, the penicillin that was present in the continuous phase is recovered. The effectiveness of the removal of different types of penicillin can be removed at a greater value at lower pH. This is because at a lower pH the impurities are left behind and can be removed, but at a higher pH, the impurities will remain with the organic phase, and thus will be hard to separate. This is the major reason why the aqueous extract is acidified again, so that we are able to lower the pH and obtain a better amount of penicillin and remove most of the impurities present [4]. Although methods like Emulsion liquid membrane in countercurrent extraction column can be very productive and economically feasible, some other measures are still required to produce penicillin in industry at a larger scale. Industrial Procedure The industrial process of the recovery of penicillin is in fact more complex. It requires the use of a fermenter, a filtration system and 3 buffer units, as shown in figure below. The industrial process uses the same principle of distribution ratio, which determines the measure of purity in the extracted product. The distribution ration is equal to the concentration of a solute phase in an organic phase divided by its concentration in aqueous phase. This principle is effectively used in removing the level of impurities from the final product. In this process, corn-steep liquor, which is a waste product in the wet milling of corn, is entered as the feed. When it enters the fermenter, additional nutrients such as metabolism modifiers and antifoaming agents can also be added. The pH is then adjusted and the contents in the fermenter are seam sterilized. As the temperature reaches a value of about 25oC, the fermenter is inoculated with a pure and high yielding mutant strain of Penicillium [2]. At this point, it comes in contact with sterile air with the help of turbine agitation to provide proper air medium interface and the constant addition of extra nutrients an d antifoaming agents [2]. This whole process is carried out for approximately one week. After the fermentation period, the solution is then sent to a filtration unit where impurities such as mycelium are separated from the aqueous solution that contains penicillin. As the separation takes place, the aqueous solution goes through three extraction units to obtain the final product in solid form. First the solution enters the primary extraction unit where its pH is reduced to a value of two by using sulfuric acid and amyl acetate, these results in penicillin to be extracted. This organic solution is then sent into the secondary extraction unit where it comes into contact with an aqueous buffer solution with a pH of six. This results in the formation of rich penicillin aqueous solution. Finally this solution is sent to the third and final extraction unit. Here the solution is re-acidified and either contacted with the same organic solvent used in primary extraction or with another organ ic solvent such as methyl isobutyl ketone. This second contact with organic solvent is used to prevent the transfer of any soluble impurities [2]. After continuous treatment, the final product of penicillin is recovered in solid form. Conclusion Penicillin is world renown antibiotic, its importance came in the early 1900s were it was used as a healing agent for bacterial infections. Till today its importance plays a vital role in society. Penecillin process is carried out with the help of new ways being developed in the recovery of penicillin. To conclude, it was noted that there are many different ways to recover penicillin using different agents. However, the quality and quantity of the product plays an important role in determining the best fermenting process. Using the principles of distribution ratios recovered penicillin in an almost pure form. While the use of countercurrent extraction column gave a more modernized method, but was not always able to give similar results as the use of distribution ratios. References [1] Lee, Sang C. Contiuous extraction of penicillin by liquid membrane in a countercurrent extraction column. Journal of Membrane Science 124 (1997): 43-51. [2] Baird, Malcolm H. Handbook of Solvent Extraction. New York, NY: Wiley, 1983. [3] Philipe, Dr Calos. Penicillin. First lecture of Chem Eng 3BK3. [4] T. Hano, M. Matsumoto and T. Ohtake, Continuous Extraction of Penicillin G with liquid surfactant membrane using vibro mixer. Journal of Membrane Science 93(1994): 61 [5] [Mary Bellis. The History of Penicillin.Inventors. About.com. Retrieved 2007-10-30.]

tragoed Oedipus the King (Oedipus Rex) - The Archetypal Tragic Man Ess

Free Oedipus the King Essays: The Archetypal Tragic Man According to Greek mythology, the Sphinx, a creature that is part woman, part bird, and part lion, caused famine and disease in Thebes that could be ended only when someone solved her riddle.   Oedipus traveled to Thebes and answered the riddle correctly.   The citizens of Thebes consider him a hero because he restored harmony to their kingdom.   Sophocles alludes to the riddle of the Sphinx several times in his play, Oedipus Rex.   Since the riddle is a metaphor for Oedipus' life, it is ironic that he was able to answer the question.   His revelation of the riddle of the Sphinx further supports the perspective of Oedipus as the archetypal tragic man. The sphinx asks, "What has four legs in the morning, two legs in the afternoon, and three legs at night?"   Oedipus correctly answers "man", saving Thebes from the terrible drought and disease brought about by the horrible creature.   The different times of day mentioned in the question actually represent different stages in life.   In the morning, or childhood, humans crawl on ...

laughter :: essays research papers

In a nation that spent some 75 million dollars on prescription drugs in 1993, not to mention illegal drugs, we sometimes overlook the coping mechanisims we have been endowed with (U.S. 1995). Our bodies were created to take care of themselves for the most part, and we sometimes botch things up when we try to alter our system with drugs. In Proverbs 17:22 (1989), it says "A merry heart doeth good like a medicine, but a broken spirit drieth the bones." For many years scientists and lay persons have done studies, research, and performed experiments concerning the effects of laughter on one's physical and mental health. These studies have proven that when we laugh, there is an actual chemical change in our bodies that helps to ease pain and release stress. Laughter is a coping mechanisim for the normal stress of life. There are two kinds of stress--distress, which is the negative kind of stress; and eustress, which is the positive kind of stress. While distress increases stress hormones such as beta-endorphin, corticotrophin, cortisol, growth hormone, prolactin, and the catecholamines, eustress decreases these hormones and instead increases the activity of Natural Killer (NK) cells that help fight diseases (Berk & Tan 1996). Distressful events and major life changes can obviously impact our bodies negatively. It has been proven that stress depletes the immune system's ability to fight against disease. Dr. Lee Berk and Dr. Stanley Tan of the Loma Linda University Medical Center have done an abundance of research in psychoneuroimmunology (PNI). PNI simply says that the immune system is directly connected to the brain; therefore, it would be effected by the emotions. One of Berk and Tan's experiments showed that immunosuppressive hormones (hormones that harm or deplete the immune system) such as epinephrine and cortisol were lower in those participants that laughed than in those who did not (Wooten 1995). Another experiment performed by Berk and Tan (1996) in which they presented their results at a conference on April 18, 1996, proved that laughing (while watching a humorous video) increases the amount of NK cells. Indirectly, stress is probably our number one killer. It effects us physically and mentally, wearing our immune systems down, and causing us to be more susceptible to sickness and disease. We try to treat the disease, when we really need to treat the cause. How does one treat something like stress? laughter :: essays research papers In a nation that spent some 75 million dollars on prescription drugs in 1993, not to mention illegal drugs, we sometimes overlook the coping mechanisims we have been endowed with (U.S. 1995). Our bodies were created to take care of themselves for the most part, and we sometimes botch things up when we try to alter our system with drugs. In Proverbs 17:22 (1989), it says "A merry heart doeth good like a medicine, but a broken spirit drieth the bones." For many years scientists and lay persons have done studies, research, and performed experiments concerning the effects of laughter on one's physical and mental health. These studies have proven that when we laugh, there is an actual chemical change in our bodies that helps to ease pain and release stress. Laughter is a coping mechanisim for the normal stress of life. There are two kinds of stress--distress, which is the negative kind of stress; and eustress, which is the positive kind of stress. While distress increases stress hormones such as beta-endorphin, corticotrophin, cortisol, growth hormone, prolactin, and the catecholamines, eustress decreases these hormones and instead increases the activity of Natural Killer (NK) cells that help fight diseases (Berk & Tan 1996). Distressful events and major life changes can obviously impact our bodies negatively. It has been proven that stress depletes the immune system's ability to fight against disease. Dr. Lee Berk and Dr. Stanley Tan of the Loma Linda University Medical Center have done an abundance of research in psychoneuroimmunology (PNI). PNI simply says that the immune system is directly connected to the brain; therefore, it would be effected by the emotions. One of Berk and Tan's experiments showed that immunosuppressive hormones (hormones that harm or deplete the immune system) such as epinephrine and cortisol were lower in those participants that laughed than in those who did not (Wooten 1995). Another experiment performed by Berk and Tan (1996) in which they presented their results at a conference on April 18, 1996, proved that laughing (while watching a humorous video) increases the amount of NK cells. Indirectly, stress is probably our number one killer. It effects us physically and mentally, wearing our immune systems down, and causing us to be more susceptible to sickness and disease. We try to treat the disease, when we really need to treat the cause. How does one treat something like stress?

Islamic Studies †Death and Disease Essay

Death and disease occur all around us; they are universal human experiences. Muslims look upon death as a transitional phase between this life and the next. Since ‘the enjoyment of the present life is but little as compared with the hereafter’ a true Muslim shall not fear death. Death and disease are both necessary methods of biological control, without which problems such as overpopulation would be widespread. They also allow us to appreciate life and good health respectively, without which our society is likely to take a lot more for granted. The classic theistic view of this life being a test by God is one upheld by Muslims. In perspective of this, disease is principally viewed as one of the ways of carrying out this test – the ultimate reward for which being paradise. A practical utopia in which there is no suffering would lead to a world of automata; one in which our freedom would be undermined and thus nullifying the test for which we were placed on earth. Those of us who abuse this freedom and live for this life alone shall be punished by Allah, some remaining in hell for eternity. This can be seen by some to conflict with God’s mercy as it may seem harsh, however Muslims take the view that it is necessary so as to differentiate fully between good and evil, awarding each only what they deserve. Disease can be one of the means of coming to death and is an experience that comes to us all. It can be seen to have several purposes depending on the circumstances. The following verse illustrates Muslim’s views on life being a test: â€Å"He who has created death and life that he might try you-which of you is best in deeds.† In order to be tested we must undergo hardship- disease being one example. Those with patience and who affirm their faith whilst saying as all who are suffering should: â€Å"Surely to Allah we belong and to Him shall we return† are those who will have succeeded in the test. Those who blame Allah and result in blasphemy or kufr are those who will have failed. This test is essential as it allows differentiation between the latter and the former. The word test in Arabic can also mean misfortune, an example of which being disease, which has other purposes besides being a test. Yet only Allah is able to assess these purposes and thus we are only able to make generalised comments. For the believer, disease or more generally misfortune is a bounty from Allah as it can be a means of purification of sins and also enduring disease increases our reward. The prophet was reported to have said: ‘You are not a believer until you see misfortune to be a bounty and good fortune to be undesirable’ This is because many of those who are given the ‘illusory’ pleasures of this life stray from the right path, for as we know ‘power corrupts.’ All misfortune to believers is of benefit. A Muslim scholar was reported to have said. â€Å"God did not cause disease upon a Muslim in this life but that it will be of benefit to him.† Thus it is common that Allah gives Muslims the most misfortune, they are suffering from disease in all parts of the world- yet it shall be of benefit to them. Yet why are those non-believers not usually tested equally? It is because they have already failed in their test- Satan needs not spend time with those who are already corrupt. The Prophet peace be upon him was reported to have said: â€Å"The greater Allah’s love for a person the harder is his test† Thus there is a hierarchy of misfortune, the greatest being upon the greatest of us, notably the prophets. Yet for the disbeliever the hereafter begins to manifest itself in this life. Disease can be seen as a just punishment brought upon by themselves: â€Å"And whatever misfortune befalls you, is due to what your own hands have wrought† A contemporary example of this being the sexually transmitted diseases present in today’s ever-increasing promiscuous society. Surely AIDS and the like of it were brought about by ‘their own hands’? However, the above verse does not apply to true Muslims as the following explains: When Ali, son of Hussein-the grandson of the Prophet, was taken to Yazid to be tortured by him, Yazid said â€Å"And whatever misfortune†¦.hands† Ali replied, â€Å"This verse is not concerning us (me), that which is regarding us is ‘There befalls no misfortune either in the earth or in your own persons, but it is recorded in a Book before We bring it into being’ † Thus Muslims are expected to be patient and to endure disease. Islam has taken various measures to help those with disease. The Quran rightly says, â€Å"There is no inconvenience for the sick.† This is reflected in the fact that those who are ill do not need to fast, those who have a bad leg may sit whilst praying and many other examples. Others with disease should be treated with sympathy, compassion and kindness. Yet the disease of physiological bearing is insignificant when compared with the misfortune that is the spiritual disease. Those who are ‘ill’ from within are thus also suffering from disease, yet their disease is one of choice. The Quran describes those who are spiritually sick in the following way: â€Å"In their hearts was a disease, and Allah has increased their disease.† Death is an experience that all of us will go through, as Allah reiterates in the holy Qur’an on three separate occasions: â€Å"Every soul shall taste of death† Muslims believe that every person on earth is given a specific time in which to live, thus ‘no person can die except by Allah’s leave- a decree with a fixed term.’ With this in mind, Muslims should not fear the future. If a person’s time has come, there is no evading Azrai’l, the angel of death: â€Å"Say, ‘If you had remained in your homes, surely those who on whom death had been enjoined would have gone forth to their deathbeds.† With the belief that our lives are not our own possessions and that only Allah has the right to take life from us, homicide, suicide and euthanasia are forbidden in Islam. Also, excessive mourning and lavish graves are also forbidden. Yet how can Muslims believe in life after death? Is it possible that after decaying in the earth we can be brought back to life? There are many ways in which this belief may be justified. One way takes the form of an experimental argument entirely based on physical research, John Hick suggests that â€Å"even if we discount the entire range of physical phenomena it remains true that the best cases of trance utterance are puzzling, and taken at face value are indicative of survival and communication after death.â €  There are also countless philosophical arguments notably in Plato’s Phaedo or in the works of Socrates that may also account for the practicability of resurrection. Yet the argument presented in the Quran, in my opinion, is the most direct and feasible. The argument put forward in surat Yasin is self-explanatory: â€Å"Does not man see that We have created him from a mere sperm drop? Yet lo! He is an open quarreller†¦. He says ‘Who can resurrect the bones when they are decayed?† Say, ‘He who created them the first time will resurrect them†¦ Verily his command when he intends a thing is only that He says to it, ‘Be’ and it is.† Death signifies the end of our worldly life. It is the parting of the material and non- material forms; the body and the soul. The soul, or al-Nafs, differentiates man from the rest of creation, constituting humans to be the ‘crown’ of Allah’s creation. Muslims believe that Allah only gi ves to us what is just, similarly our dying is a means of justice; for us and others. Death is a necessity and not just a reality, this is highlighted in the following hadith: Prophet Muhammad was reported to have said: â€Å"A tribe once approached the prophet of their time and said, ‘Pray to your Lord that death shall no longer be bestowed upon us. And so the prophet prayed and Allah no longer bestowed upon them death. As the years passed, the population grew until the houses became cramped and the generations many. Men were no longer able to go out and work as they spent their time feeding, washing and cleaning their parent, grand parents, great grand parents†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ And so the tribe went back to their prophet and asked that he pray Allah return death and death was returned† Death can also be understood on different levels. Let us consider the following verse: â€Å"Only those who listen can accept. And as for the dead, Allah will raise them to life, then to Him shall they be brought back† Yet is not resurrection the same as being brought back to life? So why has Allah said that He ‘will raise them to life then to Him shall they be brought back.† The distinction here can be interpreted as meaning those who do not listen (to Allah), but are physically alive, are spiritually dead. Similarly those of whom one may think to be dead may also be alive: â€Å"Think not of those, who have been slain in the cause of Allah as dead. Nay they are living in the presence of their Lord and are granted gifts from him.† For the believer, death can be seen as a purification of his sins, it is the last pain that a pious Muslim shall endure, but for the non-believer it is the first of an eternity of suffering. One Muslim scholar stated that for the true believer, ‘Death is a journey from a prison to a palace’, as â€Å"the life of this world is nothing but an illusory enjoyment† . Yet death can also be seen as a mercy for non-believers: â€Å"Death signifies a rest for he who obeyed his desires in this life, for surely the longer he lived the greater would be his punishment.† From the countenance of the angel of death, Azra’il, one can tell where he shall reside. It is said that upon death we are shown our position in heaven or hell. For the believer the soul will depart easily, however the non-believer says ‘My Lord, send me back that I may do righteous deeds in the life that I have left behind’ and the soul departs in a struggle. Yet death is an irrevocable barrier. It is true that our souls leave our bodies every night when we are asleep, yet ‘He retains those against which he has decreed death, and sends back the others till an appoi nted time.’ And so after our death we are unable to acquire any more reward, except, as the Prophet Muhammad said, â€Å"From three things are we able to obtain reward after our death; A charity, knowledge given to others and noble offspring. At death we are in a transition state between this life and the hereafter, known as al- Barzakh. The Quran describes those in the ‘Barzakh’ as being Sakra or in a state of stupor. There they will be questioned as to what they did in this life. Punishment or reward starts in this state yet in a non-material form until the Day of Judgement where both body and soul will be resurrected. The practical implications of death to a Muslim are that he must realise that life has a purpose; the hereafter. And thus Muslims should use their time on this earth as efficiently as possible, aiming to fulfil this purpose before the toll of death is upon us. This is reiterated by all the pious men of Islam. The fourth caliph, Ali Ibn Abu Talib’s (peace be upon him) words should be adhered to by all: â€Å"Live for this life as if you are to live forever, and live for the hereafter as if you were to die tomorrow.† To make full use of these implications, death should be constantly in our minds. To fully understand why Allah allows his servants to suffer from disease, we may consider other views on this topic. The problem of suffering has lead many to disbelieve In Allah. There are three main classic theistic views on this matter. One approach taken by Christian Science, according to its founder himself is that ‘Sin, disease, whatever seems real to material sense is unreal.’ The argument being that suffering does not really exist. Another approach put forward by Swinburne and Hick focuses on the notion that all evil is punishment which is justly inflicted by god. Another view, according to Alvin Platinga says that all suffering comes from the abuse of free will. With regards to disease he proposes that non-human persons have caused us disease by abusing their freedom. Yet all three views can be seen to be flawed. The first view, probably is the most ridiculous of all, and yet even i f ‘one could rationally defend this odd conclusion†¦even if evil is an illusion, it is a painful one and it is therefore false that evil is nothing but an illusion.’ The second approach being that all disease or suffering is a just punishment from God can also be challenged. D.Z. Phillips asks, â€Å"What then are we to say of the child that is dying from cancer?,† surely this cannot be deserved. The third approach seems much more feasible, and has some grounds in Islam. But is disease caused by angels who come down to earth and wreak havoc due to their abuse of free-will? This view by Platinga is one that has no basis in Islam. Islam has provided us with a synthesis of these views. As stated before, for the non-believer it can be punishment, for the believer it can be a test of faith or a purification of sins. It is also true that a world without suffering would render our purpose of life null. Disease also serves to emphasise, through contrast, good health. Thus it allows us to appreciate our times of good health more. Eternal hell is mentioned several times in the Quran and Muslims thus believe that some people will go to hell for eternity. Yet it is seen that this does not contradict Allah’s mercy for several key reasons. Allah is the most merciful but only to those who actively go about seeking his mercy, for Allah only helps those who help themselves. One who disobeys Allah’s orders cannot be expected to be shown as much mercy as those who are good Muslims. And yet it is not as if Allah has left us without direction and guidance. Every man and woman instinctively knows the difference between right and wrong, there are enough signs leading to Allah for â€Å"those who think and reflect† and Allah has sent down many prophets and scriptures to guide mankind. Any deviation is thus out of man’s own arrogance and thus should be punished deservingly. Hell for the sinners is also justice to those who did good in life, for if those that lived for the pleasures of the worldly life too went to heaven this would be a grave injustice to the pious amongst us. As opposite’s, heaven and hell serve to emphasise each other. Thus the prospect of hell acts as a deterrent preventing many from doing wrong and thus making the world a better place. Socrates goes one step further claiming that heaven comes from hell, â€Å"opposites come from opposites in the case of things which have an opposite.† Although the words of Socrates seem somewhat extreme, taken in a less literal sense, what he says has bearing on all that which we have discussed; Death, disease and hell. We may ask our selves, would there be death without life? Or would there be disease without good health? Or would there be hell without heaven? All of which Allah has bestowed upon us creating a perfect natural balance. Bibliography An introduction to the philosophy of religion by Brian Davies Islam by Rosalyn Kendrick Islamic Teaching Course, volume one by the IPCI Meezan Al-Hikmah volume 1,4 and 5(in Arabic) by Mohammed Shahristany Plato’s Phaedo by Plato Philosophy of Religion by John Hick Summa Theologiae by Aquinas The translation of the Holy Quran by Yusuf Ali Holy Quran, 9;38 Holy Quran, 67;3 Holy Quran, 2;157 Holy Quran, 42;31 Holy Quran, 57;23 Holy Quran, 24;62 Holy Quran, 2;11 Holy Quran, 3;186, 21;36, 29;58 Holy Quran, 3;155 Hick, J., Philosophy of Religion, p128 Holy Quran, 36;78-83 Holy Quran, 6;37 Holy Quran, 3;170 Holy Quran, 3;186 Holy Quran, 23;100 Holy Quran, 39;43 Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Ia, 13,5. Davies, B., An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, 37 Ibid,37 Gallop (ed.), Plato’s Phaedo, 17ff